The Site Formation Processes in Archaeology

Site Formation Processes refers to the events that created and affected an archaeological site before, during, and after its occupation by humans. To gain the best possible understanding of an archaeological site, researchers collect evidence of the natural and cultural events that happened there. A good metaphor for an archaeological site is a palimpsest, a medieval manuscript that has been written on, erased and written over, again and again, and again. Archaeological sites are the remains of human behaviors, stone tools, house foundations, and garbage piles, left behind after the occupants leave. However, each site was created in a specific environment; lakeshore, mountainside, cave, grassy plain. Each site was used and modified by the occupants. Fires, houses, roads, cemeteries were built; farm fields were manured and plowed; feasts were held. Each site was eventually abandoned; as a result of climate change, flooding, disease. By the time the archaeologist arrives, the sites have lain abandoned for years or millennia, exposed to weather, animal burrowing, and human borrowing of the materials left behind. Site formation processes include all of that and quite a bit more. Natural Transforms As you might imagine, the nature and intensity of events that occurred at a site are highly variable. Archaeologist Michael B. Schiffer was the first to clearly articulate the concept in the 1980s, and he broadly divided site formations into the two major categories at work, natural and cultural transforms. Natural transforms are ongoing, and can be assigned to one of several broad categories; cultural ones can end, at abandonment or burial, but are infinite or close to it in their variety. Changes to a site caused by nature (Schiffer abbreviated them as N-Transforms) depend on the age of the site, the local climate (past and present), the location and setting, and the type and complexity of occupation. At prehistoric hunter-gatherer occupations, nature is the primary complicating element: mobile hunter-gatherers modify less of their local environment than do villagers or city dwellers. Types of Natural Transforms View of Point of Arches on the Ozette Reservation North of Cape Alava. John Fowler Pedogenesis, or the modification of mineral soils to incorporate organic elements, is an ongoing natural process. Soils constantly form and reform on exposed natural sediments, on human-made deposits, or on previously formed soils. Pedogenesis causes changes in color, texture, composition, and structure: in some cases, it creates immensely fertile soils such as terra preta, and Roman and medieval urban dark earth. Bioturbation, disturbance by plant, animal and insect life, is particularly difficult to account for, as shown by a number of experimental studies, most memorably with Barbara Boceks study of pocket gophers. She discovered that pocket gophers can repopulate the artifacts in a 1x2 meter pit backfilled by clean sand in the space of seven years. Site burial, the burial of a site by any number of natural forces, can have a positive effect on site preservation. Only a handful of cases are as well-preserved as the Roman site Pompeii: the Makah village of Ozette in Washington state in the US was buried by a mudflow about 1500 AD; the Maya site Joya de Ceren in El Salvador by ash deposits about 595 AD. More commonly, the flow of high- or low-energy water sources, lakes, rivers, streams, washes, disturb and/or bury archaeological sites. Chemical modifications are also a factor in site preservation. These include cementation of deposits by carbonate from groundwater, or iron precipitation/dissolution or diagenetic destruction of bone and organic materials; and the creation of secondary materials such as phosphates, carbonates, sulfates, and nitrates. Anthropogenic or Cultural Transforms The Pompeii of North America, Joya de Ceren, was buried in a volcanic eruption in August 595 CE. Ed Nellis Cultural transforms (C-Transforms) are far more complicated than natural transforms because they consist of a potentially infinite variety of activities. People build up (walls, plazas, kilns), dig down (trenches, wells, privies), set fires, plow and manure fields, and, worst of all (from an archaeological point of view) clean up after themselves. Investigating Site Formation To get a handle on all of these natural and cultural activities in the past that have blurred the site, archaeologists rely on an ever-growing group of research tools: the primary one is geoarchaeology. Geoarchaeology is a science allied with both physical geography and archaeology: it is concerned with understanding the physical setting of a site, including its position in the landscape, types of bedrock and Quaternary deposits, and the types of soils and sediments within and outside of the site. Geoarchaeological techniques are often carried out with the aid of satellite and aerial photography, maps (topographic, geological, soil survey, historical), as well as the suite of geophysical techniques such as magnetometry. Geoarchaeological Field Methods In the field, the geoarchaeologist conducts a systematic description of cross-sections and profiles, to reconstruct stratigraphic events, their vertical and lateral variations, in and outside of the context of archaeological remains. Sometimes, geoarchaeological field units are placed off-site, in locations where lithostratigraphic and pedological evidence can be collected. The geoarchaeologist studies the site surroundings, description and stratigraphic correlation of the natural and cultural units, as well as sampling in the field for later micromorphological analysis and dating. Some studies collect blocks of intact soils, vertical and horizontal samples from their investigations, to take back to the laboratory where more controlled processing can be conducted than in the field. Grain size analysis and more recently soil micromorphological techniques, including thin section analysis of undisturbed sediments, are conducted using a petrological microscope, scanning electron microscopy, x-ray analyses such as microprobe and x-ray diffraction, and Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry. Bulk chemical (organic matter, phosphate, trace elements) and physical (density, magnetic susceptibility) analyses are used to incorporate or determine individual processes. Formation Process Studies Restudy of Mesolithic sites in Sudan excavated in the 1940s was conducted using modern techniques. The 1940s archaeologists commented that aridity had affected the sites so badly that there was no evidence of hearths or buildings or even post-holes of buildings. The new study applied micromorphological techniques and they were able to discern evidence of all of these types of features at the sites (Salvatori and colleagues). Deep-water shipwreck (defined as shipwrecks more than 60 meters deep) site formation processes have shown that the deposit of a shipwreck is a function of heading, speed, time, and water depth and can be predicted and measured using a set basic of equations (Church). Formation process studies at the 2nd century BC Sardinian site of Pauli Stincus revealed evidence of agricultural methods, including the use of a sodbuster and slash and burn farming (Nicosia and colleagues). The microenvironments of Neolithic lake dwellings in northern Greece were studied, revealing a previously unidentified response to rising and falling lake levels, with the residents building on platforms on stilts or directly on the ground as needed (Karkanas and colleagues). Sources Aubry, Thierry, et al. Palaeoenvironmental Forcing During the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic Transition in Central-Western Portugal. Quaternary Research 75.1 (2011): 66-79. Print.Bertran, Pascal, et al. Experimental Archaeology in a Mid-Latitude Periglacial Context: Insight into Site Formation and Taphonomic Processes. Journal of Archaeological Science 57 (2015): 283-301. Print.Bocek, Barbara. The Jasper Ridge . American Antiquity 57.2 (1992): 261-69. Print.Reexcavation Experiment:  Rates of Artifact Mixing by RodentsChurch, Robert A. Deep-Water Shipwreck Initial Site Formation: The Equation of Site Distribution. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 9.1 (2014): 27-40. Print.Ismail-Meyer, Kristin, Philippe Rentzel, and Philipp Wiemann. Neolithic Lakeshore Settlements in Switzerland: New Insights on Site Formation Processes from Micromorphology. Geoarchaeology 28.4 (2013): 317-39. Print.Linstà ¤dter, J., et al. Chronostratigraphy, Site Formation Processes and Pollen Record of Ifri Netsedda, N e Morocco. Quaternary International 410, Part A (2016): 6-29. Print.Nicosia, Cristiano, et al. Land Use History and Site Formation Processes at the Punic Site of Pauli Stincus in West Central Sardinia. Geoarchaeology 28.4 (2013): 373-93. Print.

Gender And Sexuality Long Essay - 2508 Words

Meghan Kearney Gender and Sexuality Long Essay 4/14/15 The â€Å"50 Shades of Grey† franchise has blurred, or â€Å"grayed† the lines between what is considered acceptable and what is considered sexual abuse. This franchise demonstrated how the social construction of gender roles has played a powerful role in the prominence and reporting of rape, and how the media has come to influence sexual assault cases, it’s victims, and the perpetrators. The media has an interesting portrayal of male and females roles, particularly in film. One specific portrayal of male versus female sexuality was in the book and movie, â€Å"50 Shades of Grey†. In both reading the book and watching the movie, it became clear to me how the gender roles of Anastasia and Mr. Grey†¦show more content†¦The fact that Anastasia agrees to be a submissive and accepts her role just goes to show how engrained these social constructions of gender roles are within society. It has become normalized for the male to be in control and the fema le to just give in to this control and do anything to satisfy the male. While Anastasia is not technically raped at any part of the book or movie, she is assaulted and feels extremely uncomfortable with the situation she is in. Gender roles have been socially constructed, and this plays a major role in society’s expectations from males and females. Gender norms are expectations of how boys and girls should act, including everything from what they should wear, how emotional they should be, or whether they should be passive or aggressive. In â€Å"50 Shades of Grey†, Anastasia is portrayed as a woman with typical female attributes; she has a low self-esteem and is portrayed as weak and unable to care for herself, demonstrating that she needs a man to care for her. She is even forced to sign a contract that requires her to work out four times a week. I thought this was interesting because there is a certain way in which society expects women to look, and by adhering to a strict training schedule, she is forced to give into these expectations and have a fit body that is sexually appealing to men, and specifically Christian Grey who has taken control of just about every aspect of her life. Conflict theorists seem to believe that the social

The Chain Analysis Inbound Logistics on Apple Value

Question: Describe about the Report on Apples Value Chain Analysis for The Global Supply Chain? Answer: Introduction The term value chain mainly refers to the set of activities on the basis of which a company working in a particular industry can avail a competitive benefit to create the shareholder value. The concept of value chain was first introduced by Michael Porter which is at present is increasingly used by various firms to deliver valuable service or product in the market. It mainly comprises of five chain of activities mentioned below: Operations Inbound Logistics Sales and marketing Outbound Logistics Service These activities are not segregated from each other but affect the activity of one another (Jack M Wilson 2013). Supply Chain Management (inbound logistics at Apple) Apple is known for its design and innovation. Its supply chain model has occupied the top rank in the industry and mainly works in the following ways: Concept testing: It mainly includes conducting market research, conducting product diagnosing, assembling of data cost and identifying possible quality defects. R and D: It is based on developing latest technologies, acquiring the business of third party and acquisition of intellectual property licensing. Launch: It mainly emphasizes on resolving backlogs and making demand forecast till the period of 150 days. Quarterly Review: It usually focuses on reviewing inventory level, adjusting the forecast of demand, checking the status of the life cycle of the products, updating the status of latest product development, monitoring current levels of sales and trends of component costs (CS Canada 2013). Pre launch: It basically involves managing issues of production ramp, providing software to latest products, managing commitments of material purchase, raising of orders, determining launch quantity, providing proper levels of inventory and making prepayments to the suppliers. The supply chain activities of Apple not only ensure product quality but also make sure it caters to the requirements of the customers. But at the same time because of these chain of supply activities Apple can face problem in the global market in the event of any economic turmoil. Strength It helps Apple to focus on manufacturing world class products using innovative approaches. It replaces the requirement of innumerable warehouses with the centralized location of California. Weakness It can affect the company during the time of economic turmoil. Company is entirely dependent on its outsourcing partners for the supply of logistical services. Operations Operational management in Apple is mainly based on the following sub-heads mentioned below: Quality management Design of services and goods Capacity design and process Layout strategy and design Location strategy Human resources and job design Inventory management Management of supply chain Maintenance and Scheduling These operations management of Apple evaluate and monitor productivity through different criteria. Diverse activities and global size of the firm are translated to various benchmarks, criteria and standards fort productivity in various commercial areas of the company (IMANET n.d.). Certain productivity criteria in the operational management of Apple are: Productivity of the Apple stores Productivity of the Apply supply chain and supplier Productivity of every employee of the Apple for developing product. It is due to this operational management that Apple has been successful in setting high standards for its products in the market. However, it is because of this operational management it has failed to attract shareholders as it is not ready to share its chunk of its vast revenues with them (Descartes 2014). Strength Helps to maximize the capacity of the workforce to design and develop products. It helps in effective control and tracking of the products of the company. Weakness It prevents the entry of outsiders into its operating system. Not friendly with the share holders. Outbound Logistics Outbound Logistic activities of the company mainly involve storing the finished products in various warehouses and then distribute it in different corners of the world through third party vendors. With the help of this activity it has been easier for the company to store the bulk of its products ranging from iPhones, iPads, and so on in a safe and secured condition and then on the basis of demands these items are released in certain stocks to satisfy the demand of the customers. Strength It helps in smooth accessibility of products to the common users. Enables company to know about the latest choice of the customers. Weakness It makes firm entirely reliant on the third party vendors to ensure proper distribution of its products. Sometimes there is mismatch between ground reports and actual facts. Sales and marketing The marketing mix of Apple mainly denotes how the firm matches its commercial activities as per the condition of the market. It focuses on promotional activities which mainly include: Personal selling Advertising Public relations Sales promotion It uses optimum pricing strategy to sale its products. Though this ultimately involves heavy price of the products but it helps in maintaining the high standard of the firm along with its products. The major benefit of this strategy is that the firm is able to occupy the smaller market share comprising of upper middle classes only. The major disadvantage of such strategy is during any financial crisis it will be hard for it to shift its products to the market of lower income people (IIMB 2014). Strength It helps in developing brand awareness among the customers. It helps in reaching before the target segment of customers much easily. Weakness It can have a disturbing effect on the customers burdened with office works. Excessive advertisement can take a toll on the image of the company. References Jack M Wilson 2013, Apple The Global Supply Chain, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://www.jackmwilson.net/Cases/Case-Apple-Supplychain.pdf CS Canada 2013, A Strategic Analysis of Apple Computer Inc. Recommendations for the Future Direction, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://www.cscanada.net/index.php/mse/article/viewFile/j.mse.1913035X20130702.Z001/4304` SERC 2014, The Analysis of Strategic Management of Samsung Electronics Company through the Generic Value Chain Model, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://www.sersc.org/journals/IJSEIA/vol8_no12_2014/12.pdf Merage 2011, Capturing Value in Global Networks: Apples iPad and iPhone, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://pcic.merage.uci.edu/papers/2011/value_ipad_iphone.pdf IMANET, Value Chain Analysis for Assessing Competitive Advantage, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://www.imanet.org/docs/default-source/thought_leadership/management_control_systems/value_chain_analysis_for_assessing_competitive_advantage.pdf?sfvrsn=2 Descartes 2014, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://www.descartes.com/content/uploads/il_digital_june2014.pdf IFIP, Transforming Supply Chains in Digital Content Delivery: A Case Study in Apple, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://dl.ifip.org/db/conf/ifip8/confenis2007-2/NathSS07.pdf IIMB 2014, Supply Chain Management: Value Chain and Value Network Logics, retrieved on 4th February 2016 from https://www.iimb.ernet.in/docs/scmc-papers/Viqar%20Ali%20Baig.pdf